Following Prussia's victory at Königgrätz in 1866, the North German Confederation became an instrument for Prussian dominance. All northern German states not directly annexed by Prussia were put in the new Confederation in which Berlin assumed control of their foreign and military affairs, and most of their internal ones as well. A solid block of Prussian territory stretched now between France and Belgium in the west to Russian Lithuania in the east. Tensions rise between Paris and Berlin,...

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was brief, yet its consequences were profound. It was the culminating event in a rivalry that began with the rise of the house of Brandenburg-Prussia, most notably Frederick the Great’s unprovoked attack upon the Habsburg province of Silesia in 1740. From that time Austria and Prussia were involved in a long struggle for supremacy in Germany. In 1866 Prussian armies invades Saxony and then the Austrian Empire with the main battle occurring on 3rd July 1866 at...

Any list of decisive battles of European history would be incomplete without a battle which occurred on 3 July 1866 near the town of Königgrätz, in the north of the today’s Czech Republic. The victorious allies of the Schleswig War of 1864, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, soon after fall out with each other and go to war. Austria faces great challenges - in the centre of Europe and facing in two directions – north and west to Germany, and south and east to a number of various...

When in November 1863 King Frederick VII of Denmark died, a dispute arose over who had a legitimate claim to rule over the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Otto von Bismarck saw this as a great opportunity to increase Prussian power in the region and decided, together with the Austrians, to invade Denmark. The key battle in the war was the siege of Dybbøl in April 1864 This month, August 2022, I'm doing a cycling challenge to raise money for Brain Tumour Research. More info at:...

A border dispute between the German Confederation and the Kingdom of Denmark in the regions of Schleswig and Holstein breaks out into an inconclusive war in 1848-1850, and tensions remain into the 1860's. Meanwhile, a common culture was developing across the German population of Europe, with the literary works of Goethe and Schiller, and philosophers Kant and Hegel. On the political scene, Otto von Bismarck rises to power as the Prussian chief minister. He urges the need for the king’s...

Napoleon III of France and Cavour, chief minister of Piedmont come to an agreement to try to remove Austrian influence from the Italian peninsula, and provoke Vienna into war. One of the largest battles was at Solferino where there were three monarchs - Franz Joseph of Austria, Victor Emanuel of Piedmont and Napoleon III. The ensuing conflict lasted until 1861 when finally emerged the brand new nation of Italy www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Giuseppe...

The Napoleonic Wars had a dramatic impact on Italy, completing redrawing boundaries. Even though the French were defeated, many of their political reforms were to be both profound and long-lasting. And the temporary unification of parts of the peninsula encouraged Italians to be aware of a common nationality. Yet only decades afterwards would there be real change. Some of the protagonists were Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini and Camillo Cavour, the Prime Minister of...

An allied army of British, French and Italians besiege the Crimean port of Sevastopol in late 1854. Fighting also took place in the Baltic Sea and in the Far East, and in the Caucasus mountains at the siege of the fortress of Kars. The main event at Sevastopol was particularly protracted and bloody as the allies attempted to break through into the city www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederich Chopin: Preludes No. 7 'The Polish dancer'; Nocturne in F...

The Russians invade Moldavia and Wallachia (in modern day Romania) and destroy the Ottoman Black Sea fleet at Sinop. Under public pressure, the French and British governments, concerned about growing Russian power, decide to send in troops to force the invaders to retreat. Seeking to neutralise the Russian threat in the Black Sea and Mediterranean, the Allies decide to invade Crimea. One of several early skirmishes was the famous 'charge of the light...

The Ottoman Sultans attempt to reform their army and state, under pressure from outside powers, most notably Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, who lays claim to protecting Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean War begins when Russia invades the Orthodox territories of Moldavia and Wallachia in modern day Romania. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music from Frederich Chopin: Nocturne in B flat minor, no. 1, and Polonaise no. 1 Picture - The First Serbian...

The powers of Europe, especially Britain and France are concerned by the decline of the Ottoman Empire and growing power and ambition of Russia. This episode focuses on the problems of the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II, who descendants once ruled a mighty empire that threatened Christendom, but in the 1800's was struggling under the pressures of modernity and the threat of regions breaking away e.g. in Egypt, Arabia and the Balkans.  www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music:...

Revolutionary breaks out across Europe continent from France to Romania, Denmark to Italy. Slowly the authorities regained control but were unable to reverse all of the changes. Most governments, for example, kept some form of constitution, and liberals worked hard to defend what was left of their achievements. The events of 1848 gave millions of Europeans their first taste of politics, and remained an inspiration for later...

In the first months of 1848, a tidal wave of revolution shook the political establishment of Europe to its foundations Events began with an uprising in Sicily in January, and by the end of the year the entire continent had been affected to some degree, including the overthrow of leaders in France, Austria, Italy and Germany www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music: William Tell Overture by Gioachino Rossini, courtesy of musopen.org Picture: Revolutionaries in Berlin in March...

King Charles X of France is overthrown and replaced by his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans.  Meanwhile a 10 month long insurrection in Poland is crushed by the Russians. In the retribution which followed, eighty-thousand Poles are dragged off in chains to Siberia.  The year 1830 also witnessed the formal independence of Greece from the Ottoman Empire after a war which had begun nine years before. And the Industrial Revolution gathers steam across western...

The Congress of Vienna 1814 at the end of the long Napoleonic Wars led to a period of relative peace on the continent of Europe. A network of institutions was established known as the ‘Concert of Europe’ where differences could be thrashed out before leading to war. After the French Revolution, the basis of sovereignty shifted from individuals and families as leaders to nations and states. Throughout Europe a generation of individuals from the educated elite took the lead in developing...

The French army invades Russia. The Russians retreat deep into their own territory then confront the French at the inconclusive Battle of Borodino of September 1812. Napoleon leads his men into Moscow but is forced to abandon the city and return westwards in the middle of winter, resulting in devastating losses. The anti-French coalition regain the initiative at the huge Battle of the Nations and finally at the Battle of Waterloo. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music...

The French invade Prussia and capture its capital Berlin, and then move into Poland and take Warsaw. Napoleon and Tsar Alexander then agreed the Treaties of Tilsit. The greatest resistance to French dominance comes from the Spanish, aided by the British under the command of the Duke of Wellington.www.patreon.com/historyeuropewww.historyeurope.netMusic from Beethoven - Symphony Nr 5, courtesy of www.musopen.orgPicture: Charles Meynier - Entrée de Napoléon à Berlin, 27 Octobre 1806 See...

Peace could potentially have lasted after the treaties of Lunéville and Amiens of 1801 and 1802 had the great powers accepted each others’ spheres of influence. However, the agreements turned out to be just a short truce. Napoleon’s continued annexations in Europe and apparent ambitions in the Mediterranean and Near East alarmed the British and Russians. The French suffer defeat at Trafalgar but manage to occupy Vienna. The Russians then withdrew back eastwards, while the Austrians hastened...

Napoleon leads the French into Egypt but is defeated at the Battle of the Nile by the British. Afterwards the Russians and Austrians push back against the French in Italy, but then suffer a reverse at the Battle of Marengo. Marengo turned out arguably to be the most important victory of Napoleon’s career. Had he lost the battle, he would have lost the war and probably the consulship. Instead his narrow win secured his job and won him...

The French invade Belgium in 1794 and the Netherlands in 1795. The coalition against them starts to fall apart as individual members came to terms. Russia, Prussia and Austria are distracted by their partitioning of Poland, which is wiped off the map. Next the French invade Austria and Italy, the Italian campaign led by a promising young commander Napoleon Bonaparte. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music from Mozart (Symphony no. 40 'Prague'), courtesy of...

A French military victory at Valmy in 1792 and the execution of Louis XVI in January 1793 focused the growing concern across Europe about the radical new regime in Paris. The true revolutionary nature of events in France was dawning on everyone, including the possibility of the export of the revolutionary principles. In France, there was further political turmoil in 1793 with the coming to power of Maximilien Robespierre, who embarked on a fully fledged reign of Terror Music - Mozart's...

The French king from 1774, Louis XVI, was poorly equipped for the role of national leader at a difficult time. His tragedy was that he had good intentions and a strong sense of responsibility. But he was shy and awkward and lacked the required political skills and charisma. Decades of failure for the French in foreign and domestic affairs, resulted in a profound crisis of legitimacy for the monarchy, resulting in the famous revolution of...

The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars can be dated to 17th August 1787, when in Constantinople the Ottomans arrested the Russian ambassador Count Bulgakov in the Topkapi palace, and declared war on St Petersburg. Catherine the Great had deliberately provoked the Turks and now dragged in the reluctant Austrians into the war. The Austrian Emperor was Joseph II, the archetypal enlightened despot, who worked hard to reform his empire but from the top down. His reforms provoked the...

In the last years of the 19th century the continent of Europe was turned on its head. France erupted into revolution in the middle of what was already a volatile situation, with various tensions between the Great Powers (Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria, Ottomans as well as France). The storming of the Bastille is an iconic moment, not just for French, but world history. It came at a time when French prestige was in decline and her foreign policy seemed adrift. The French support of...

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