This lecture focuses on mental processes by which individuals form spatial memories, or cognitive maps, of their physical and social environments. The distinction between individuals’ perceptions of discrete objects as compared to their interpretations and memories of their large-scale, socio-physical surroundings (e.g., neighborhoods, workplaces, public spaces) is discussed. Key features of physical environments that people use to form cognitive maps of their spatial surroundings include paths or transit routes; geographic districts and their boundaries or edges; nodes (gathering places); and landmarks (major points of interest). Urban planners’ arrangement and combination of these elements contribute to the overall imageability (capacity to evoke strong place memories) and legibility (clarity and coherence) of environments. At the same time, the social and cultural meanings that become associated with some environments (such as historical, religious, and commemorative sites) contribute to their social imagability, as distinct from their physical imagability. The physical imagability of environments depends more on their architectural and natural features than on the sociocultural meanings associated with certain places.