Jerome Karle, born Jerome Karfunkel, was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing revolutionary mathematical techniques through which X-ray crystallography can be used to deduce the three-dimensional structure of natural substances vital to the internal chemistry of the human body. He started college at age 15 and earned his degree from the City College of New York in 1937. Karle received his master's degree in biology from Harvard the next year. In 1940, he enrolled at the University of Michigan and received his doctorate, and starting in 1943, after completing his...