Rheumatoid Arthritis , Gout , Osteoarthritis, Psudogout . Robbins Pathology Book Podcast. Bone Pathology

Many diseases are caused or influenced by environmental factors. Broadly defined, the term ambient environment encompasses the various outdoor, indoor, and occupa- tional settings in which humans live and work. In each of these settings, the air people breathe, the food and water they consume, and the toxic agents they are exposed to are major determinants of health. Other environmental factors pertain to the individual (“personal environment”) and include tobacco use, alcohol...

Pathology : Robbins & Cotran : Adaptations of cellular growth & differentiation Hypertrophy| Hyperplasia| Atrophy | Metaplasia Hypertrophy Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells resulting in an increase in the size of the organ. In contrast, hyper- plasia (discussed next) is an increase in cell number. Stated another way, in pure hypertrophy there are no new cells, just bigger cells containing increased amounts of structural proteins and organelles. Hyperplasia is an...

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The hollow tube inside the neck that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes to the stomach). The pharynx is about 5 inches long, depending on body size.The pharynx, more commonly known as the throat, is a five cm long tube extending behind the nasal and oral cavities until the voice box (larynx) and the esophagus. Essentially, it forms a continuous muscular passage for air, food, and liquids to travel down from your nose and...

The Mendel's laws of inheritance include law of dominance, law of segregation and law of independent assortment. The law of segregation states that every individual possesses two alleles and only one allele is passed on to the offspring.The Mendel's four postulates and laws of inheritance are: (1) Principles of Paired Factors (2) Principle of Dominance(3) Law of Segregation or Law of Purity of Gametes (Mendel's First Law of Inheritance) and (4) Law of Independent Assortment (Mendel's Second...

R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships. Table 2.1 gives a comparative account of different characteristics of the five kingdoms. The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom Monera into two domains, leaving...

Blood groups and genetic linkage Red cell groups act as markers (inherited characteristics) for genes present on chromosomes, which are responsible for their expression. The site of a particular genetic system on a chromosome is called a locus. Each locus may be the site of several alleles (alternative genes). In an ordinary cell of the human body, there are 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs, 22 pairs of which are autosomes (chromosomes other than sex chromosomes), with the remaining pair...

ANTERIOR TRIANGLE OF THE NECK The anterior triangle of the neck is bounded anteriorly by the median line of the neck and posteriorly by the anterior margin of sternocleidomastoid. Its base is the inferior border of the mandible and its projection to the mastoid process, and its apex is at the manubrium sterni. It can be subdivided into suprahyoid and infrahyoid areas above and below the hyoid bone, and into digastric, submental, muscular and carotid triangles by the passage of digastric...

anteriorly in the lower neck, level with the fifth cervical to the first thoracic vertebrae (see Fig. 29.17). It is ensheathed by the pretracheal layer of deep cervical fascia and consists of right and left lobes connected by a narrow, median isthmus. It usually weighs 25 g but this varies. The gland is slightly heavier in females and enlarges during menstruation and pregnancy. Estimation of the size of the thyroid gland is clinically important in the evaluation and management of...

External acoustic meatus The temporal bone contains the bony (osseous) part of the external acoustic meatus. Ossification The four temporal components ossify independently (Fig. 37.2). The squamous part is ossified in a sheet of condensed mesenchyme from a single centre near the zygomatic roots, which appears in the seventh or eighth week in utero. The petromastoid part has several centres that appear in the cartilaginous otic capsule during the fifth month; as many as 14 have been...

SCLERA The sclera accounts for approximately 93% of the outer coat of the eye. Anteriorly, it is continuous with the cornea at the corneoscleral junction (see Fig. 42.1). It is punctured by a number of foramina containing nerves and blood vessels, most notably the optic foramen, which lies 3 mm medial to the midline and 1 mm below the horizontal, and houses the optic nerve. Smaller openings contain anterior ciliary arteries that penetrate anteriorly, vortex veins that cross the sclera...

Horner’s syndrome Any condition or injury that destroys the sympathetic trunk ascending from the thorax through the neck into the face results in Horner’s syndrome, characterized by a drooping eyelid (ptosis), sunken globe (enophthalmos), narrow palpebral fissure, contracted pupil (meiosis), vasodilation and lack of thermal sweating (anhydrosis) on the affected side. Classically, this is seen in patients with bronchial carcinomas that have invaded the sympathetic trunk and is also a...

The superficial fascia of the scalp is firm, dense, fibroadipose, and closely adherent to the skin and to the underlying muscle, epicranius and the epicranial aponeurosis. Posteriorly, the fascia is continuous with the superficial fascia of the back of the neck, and laterally it is prolonged into the temporal region, where it is looser in texture. Three fascial layers (a subcutaneous fibroadipose tissue, a superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS) and the parotid–masseteric fascia)...

On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had commanded troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a peoplesí militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms. Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison,...

The hypoglossal nerve is one of 12 cranial nerves. It's also known as the 12th cranial nerve, cranial nerve 12 or CNXII. This nerve starts at the base of your brain. It travels down your neck and branches out, ending at the base and underside of your tongue.

The accessory nerve is the eleventh paired cranial nerve. It has a purely somatic motor function, innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.This nerve supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, which have the following functions: Rotation of head away from the side of the contracting sternocleidomastoid muscle. Tilting of the head toward the contracting sternocleidomastoid muscle. Flexion of the neck by both sternocleidomastoid muscles.The Spinal Accessory Nerve...

Vagus nerve, also called X cranial nerve or 10th cranial nerve, longest and most complex of the cranial nerves. The vagus nerve runs from the brain through the face and thorax to the abdomen. It is a mixed nerve that contains parasympathetic fibres.

The glossopharyngeal nerve is the ninth set of 12 cranial nerves (CN IX). It provides motor, parasympathetic and sensory information to your mouth and throat. Among its many functions, the nerve helps raise part of your throat, enabling swallowing.

The vestibulocochlear nerve (8th cranial nerve) is a sensory nerve. It is made up of two nerves, the cochlear, which transmits sound and the vestibular which controls balance.